INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNTABILITY IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING: MORE OPPORTUNITIES TO PRODUCE SPOKEN ENGLISH

The contribution of cooperative learning (CL) in promoting second and foreign language learning has been widely acknowledged. Little scholarly attention, however, has been given to revealing how this teaching method works and promotes learners’ improved communicative competence. This qualitative case study explores the important role that individual accountability in CL plays in giving English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Indonesia the opportunity to use the target language of English. While individual accountability is a principle of and one of the activities in CL, it is currently under studied, thus little is known about how it enhances EFL learning. This study aims to address this gap by conducting a constructivist grounded theory analysis on participant observation, in-depth interview, and document analysis data drawn from two secondary school EFL teachers, 77 students in the observed classrooms, and four focal students. The analysis shows that through individual accountability in CL, the EFL learners had opportunities to use the target language, which may have contributed to the attainment of communicative competence—the goal of the EFL instruction. More specifically, compared to the use of conventional group work in the observed classrooms, through the activities of individual accountability in CL, i.e., performances and peer interaction, the EFL learners had more opportunities to use spoken English. The present study recommends that teachers, especially those new to CL, follow the preset procedure of selected CL instructional strategies or structures in order to recognize the activities within individual accountability in CL and understand how these activities benefit students.

Teacher-dominated learning in Indonesian EFL classrooms is prevalent (Alwasilah, 2012(Alwasilah, , 2013)).This classroom reality is faced by Indonesian EFL learners as evidenced by their learning activities that include repetition and substitution drills (Mattarima & Hamdan, 2011) and focus on following their textbooks and worksheets (Alwasilah, 2012;Lie, 2007;Musthafa, 2009).In other words, they are given few opportunities to interact with their peers and use English-the target language.One of the consequences is that, as reported by Anderson (2012), Indonesia has been categorized as one of low English proficiency countries among 54 non-English speaking countries.This calls for our immediate attention because the report also revealed that countries with poor English-language skills had lower levels of trade, innovation, and income.
Peer interaction and the use of the target language are activities underlined by Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), an approach to language instruction that has been adopted by Indonesian EFL instruction since the 1980s (Lie, 2007) and aims at developing learners' communicative competence.
Nevertheless, as described above and similar to what took place in most other countries in the Asia Pacific region, there is a huge gap between ministerial mandates and classroom reality (Nunan, 2003).This, according to Alwasilah (2012Alwasilah ( , 2013)), was partly due to Indonesian EFL teachers' weakness in teaching methods and their teaching repertoire, which he found was not strong enough.Therefore, understanding the utilization of language teaching methods that promote peer interaction and use of the target language in EFL classrooms was the impetus of this study.We conducted a multi-case study in two secondary Indonesian EFL classrooms, collecting and analyzing qualitative data generated with teacher and student participants in these contexts.
The authors focused on one teaching method, cooperative learning (CL), for the following three reasons.First, CL was under the umbrella of CLT as it stresses peer interaction (Johnson & Johnson, 1985;Kagan, 1989;Richards, 2002).When teachers implement CL, they put CLT in practice.Second, according to the Process Standard of Indonesian Primary and Secondary Education, CL is a mandated doi: dx.doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v7i1.6878learning activity (Board of National Education Standard Board, 2007, 2013).Third, Law No. 20/2003on the National Education System (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2003) mandates that the learning processes should make students active in developing their potential.Literature suggests that active learning is one of the underlying concepts of CL (e.g., Cohen, 1994;Keyser, 2000;Richards, 2002;Sharan, 2002).
In light of the definitions proposed by Johnson and Johnson (1999) and Olsen and Kagan (1992), this study defines CL as a group learning activity in which individual students' contribution to the learning is realized through their performance or presentation, which is beneficial not only for their own learning but also for their peers' learning and the group's goals.
Research demonstrates that CL facilitates second language acquisition, hence, it benefits language learners (Kagan, 1995;McGroarty, 1989).More specifically, the use of CL was shown to have a positive effect on English as a Second Language (ESL) and EFL-hereafter referred to as ESL/EFLstudents' achievement in mastery of language skills and components (e.g., Alghamdi, 2014;Almuslimi, 2016;Bejarano, 1987;Ghaith, 2003;Liang, 2002;Sachs, Candlin, & Rose, 2003, Wei & Tang, 2015).Nevertheless, there is a lack of studies that depict how CL promotes ESL/EFL learning.As in a broader educational context, it remains unclear why and under what conditions CL increases students' academic achievement (Slavin, 1996).In short, these areas are worthy of further exploration.
CL researchers and developers highlight that when CL principles (e.g., positive interdependence, individual accountability, equal participation, simultaneous interaction) are enacted, cooperation among students takes place, and effective implementation will likely be achieved (see Chen, 2011;Olsen & Kagan, 1992;Johnson & Johnson, 1999, Slavin, 1999).Unfortunately, little scholarly time and effort have been spent to investigate CL principles, particularly in the ESL/EFL field.Therefore, this study attempted to address this gap in literature by exploring one CL principle, individual accountability, with the intention of understanding how it enhances EFL learning.
Individual accountability in CL takes place when individual students make a public performance, i.e. performing or sharing what they have learned or mastered in front of their group members (Kagan & Kagan, 2009).This activity may be not present in conventional group work, and its absence, we argue, can disadvantage language learners because it is an opportunity for them to practice using the target language with their peers.When such opportunity is not available, learners' process of attaining communicative competence as the goal of their language learning might be hampered (Long, 1996;Long & Porter, 1985).The ESL/EFL field needs research that explores and documents how learners' use of the target language in CL and the goal of language learning are at play in the learning process (Bejarano, 1987;Ghaith, 2003).This research area is important to generate classroom implications that will in turn promote the use of CL in the field (Ghaith, 2004).To fill this need, the present study sought to address the following question: What is the role of individual accountability in CL implementation in Indonesian secondary school EFL classrooms?This article will unpack and explore a role that individual accountability in CL plays in Indonesian EFL classrooms, i.e., giving the learners opportunities to use the target language.
In the next section, we describe the methodology of the present study, which includes discussion on our theoretical frameworks.We then present the findings and illustrate how CL and conventional group work were enacted in the classrooms we studied, and discuss what opportunities learners had to use the target language for each.We conclude by offering recommendations for teachers and future research.

METHOD
To address the research question, we employed qualitative methodology, more specifically qualitative case study.This design was a suitable because our study explored an issue, i.e. the complexity of the process of CL implementation in EFL classrooms in Indonesian secondary education.As for the case, we took one activity in CL, individual accountability, which was also the phenomenon under study.We gathered our research data through three strategies: participant observations, in-depth interviews, and document analysis (from March 2015 to September 2015).The multi-case study (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) took place in two secondary education sites because in the Indonesian context, English has never been a compulsory subject at elementary education, nor is English included in the current curriculum for elementary education.Thus, we analyzed two cases: individual accountability in CL implementation in a middle school and a high school EFL classroom.
An epistemological belief suitable for our study was constructivism where "reality is co-constructed between the researcher and the researched and shaped by individual experiences" (Creswell, 2012, p. 38).Therefore, in the process of gaining an understanding of the role of individual accountability in CL implementation in enhancing EFL learning, we involved teachers as our research participants.Other participants were students because they were the individuals who experienced learning in CL settings.
Additionally, the unit of analysis of the study was individual accountability in CL implementation in which students were the doers.Their voices should then be heard.In other words, the research participants' emicor insiderperspectives on the phenomenon under study were valued in this research.
Due to time and funding constraints, our study involved only two teacher participants: one from middle school and one from high school.They were: Andini and Putri (pseudonyms), selected through purposeful and convenience sampling.The latter sampling strategy was also used for selecting student participants: the students of the teacher participants, particularly in the classroom that they chose for the participant observations, became the potential student participants.We also utilized convenience sampling strategy to recruit students for the in-depth interviews.More specifically, the two teacher participants were asked who among their students were focal ("telling," Wallestad, 2010, p. xxii) and willing to participate in the interviews.Two focal students from each of the teacher participants' observed classrooms-one female and one male (four focal students in total)interviewed.They were (pseudonyms): Midya, Budi (eighth graders), Natya and Joko (tenth graders).
Ten field notes, totaling approximately 70 pages, were generated from the participant observations.With regard to in-depth interviewing, 19 interviews were conducted, including eight teacher participant interviews, five high school student interviews, and six middle school student interviews.Interview durations ranged from 30 minutes to 1 hour, totaling approximately 110 pages of interview transcription.Throughout the study, we analyzed curriculum and instructional documents.With the purpose of documenting our thoughts throughout the research process, we also wrote memos and journal entries for each data source (field notes, interview transcriptions, and relevant documents).
To guide our data analysis, we used constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014), which "[p]laces priority on the studied phenomenon and sees both data and analysis as created from shared experiences and relationships with participants and other sources of data" (p.239).Guided by this theory, we had sensitizing concepts, "concepts as points of departure for studying the empirical world while retaining the openness for exploring it" that gave us "ideas to pursue and questions to raise" about our topic (pp.30-31).Our theoretical frameworks (discussed later in this section) provided concepts, ideas, and questions that we brought to bear when collecting and analyzing data.They also served as starting points to access and analyze our research participants' meaning making.We kept in mind, however, that these sensitizing concepts were our tentative tools because theories were constructed from the data themselves (Charmaz, 2014).With sensitizing concepts and unit of analysis in mind, we coded our data through three levels of coding: line-by-line coding (including in-vivo coding), focused coding, and axial coding.Through the process of coding and analytic memo writing, themes emerged from the data.
Though the purpose of this study was not to compare conventional group work with CL, the participant observations gave us opportunities to see conventional group work in these settings.Examples from these lessons are shared here as negative cases.Negative cases, according to Regin (1997), are cases that are not displaying the effect.In our study, we looked at the implementation of CL in the EFL classrooms and focused on how individual accountability in CL played its roles in enhancing EFL learning.Hence, the positive cases in our study were the implementation of CL, specifically the enactment of individual accountability that enhanced EFL learning.The negative cases-the use of conventional group work-were used to support our argument presented in this article.We argue that the EFL learners had fewer opportunities to use spoken English when they were learning through conventional group work.
The interviews also revealed the research participants' views on conventional group work, with regard to how it differed from CL, especially in terms of the opportunities for students to use the target language and to interact with their peers.One type of interview question-questions based on the ongoing documents analysis and each week's analysis of participant observations data (e.g., using specific data as talking points) -allowed us to also understand how the research participants viewed the use of conventional group work, which took place across sites during the study's timeframe.The interviews revealed that the teacher participants were, to some extent, aware of the differences between CL and conventional group work (i.e., that in CL, individual students were held accountable for their own and their peers' learning).However, it was not the case with the student participants.During the interviews, the student participants were not told about the differences between CL and conventional group work but the term kelompok biasa (Indonesian language meaning regular group) was used in one type of interview questions, such as in the following: "What language did you and your peers use when you were learning in regular groups, not in CL groups such as Think-Pair-Share and Whispering Game?"The term conventional group work, however, is used in this article because it is the term usually used in the literature.Additionally, at some point in the interviews or in informal conversations with the student participants, we told them the topic of the research and its focusindividual accountability in CL-with language that we expected would help their understanding and/or with the help of the information written on the assent form.
We employed Cultural-Historical Activity Theory or CHAT (Engeström, 2000;Leont'ev, 1978;Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999;Yamagata-Lynch, 2003;Yamagata-Lynch, 2007;Yamagata-Lynch, 2010) and Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996) as our theoretical frameworks.Through its concepts of activity systems and its components (subjects, tools, object/goal, rules, community, and division of laborsee Figure 1), CHAT was used to make sense of how individual accountability as an activity in CL served as a medium of conscious learning in the EFL classrooms.As indicated earlier, two activity systems were analyzed, i.e., the implementation of CL in the middle school and the high school's EFL classrooms.

Interaction
Hypothesis (Long, 1996) encompasses the concepts of comprehensible input, comprehensible output, interaction, and negotiation for meaning.This theory was utilized to understand how individual accountability in CL promoted second language acquisition and development.Long posits that through interaction with their peers and the process of negotiation for meaning in it, language learners receive input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence (Krashen, 1985) and produce the target language, including refining their natural talk (Swain, 1985).In combination, the two theories (CHAT and Interaction Hypothesis) were employed to understand the role of individual accountability in CL in enhancing EFL learning in the studied classrooms, including how it helped the EFL learners learn the target language.
There are at least two methodological limitations to the study.The first limitation pertains to the short period of investigation, especially with regard to participant observation data, i.e., one month (resulting in 10 field notes and 10 analytic memos).The second limitation relates to the position of the first author as "the researcher as translator" (Temple & Young, 2004, p. 168).She translated quotes from the interviewsespecially those used to support our arguments-and relevant curriculum and instructional documents from Indonesian to English.In addition to these translations, the coding and memo writing were in English, which involved an act of translating key words and phrases from the transcriptions and document analysis data.Additionally, the first author carried out member checking in Indonesian.Despite these limitations, we believe this work has important contributions to make for EFL instruction, and we now move to sharing our findings.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
One of the identified roles of individual accountability in the studied EFL classrooms was that unlike with conventional group work, through this particular CL activity, the student participants had more opportunities to use English.This role was identified by looking at the relationship between the subjects (learners) and the object as well as the expected outcome in the activity systems (recall Figure 1).The object is "what is to be accomplished" (Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999, p. 63).In this case, what was being tried to be accomplished through the implementation of CL was the attainment of the objectives of each lesson.
As mandated by the curriculums guiding the EFL instruction in these classrooms, the lesson objectives cover the development of the four language skills in English, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing.The expected outcome or results of the English instruction, including the CL implementation, was the students' improved communicative competence in English.In order to achieve this, language learners should learn the target language through using it to communicate with their peers (Larsen-Freeman, 2012;Richards, 2002).In this section, we argue that the activities within individual accountability in CL gave the EFL learners opportunities to use the target language.We also argue that, compared to the use of conventional group work in the studied EFL classrooms, through individual accountability in CL the EFL learners had more opportunities to use English.

Activities of Individual Accountability in CL
This study identified four levels of individual accountability in CL: 1) individual accountability in pairs, 2) individual accountability in home groups, 3) individual accountability in other groups, and 4) individual accountability to the whole class.A lower level of individual accountability was usually followed by peer interaction that helped the student participants to prepare for a higher level of individual accountability.Individual accountability performances in CL in the studied EFL classrooms occurred in the target language, be it in spoken or written mode.Hence, when the student participants performed more than one level of individual accountability, they used English more.The required performances of individual accountability in CL may have promoted the production of comprehensible output and made comprehensible input available in the EFL learners' classrooms.This is a condition supportive to the attainment of the EFL learners' learning objectives and the goal of their EFL learning, i.e., improved communicative competence in English.
Here we provide a quick composite illustration of the type of interaction that occurred in the CL lessons observed, drawing from field notes taken during a Think-Pair-Share activity in the middle school classroom.The teacher-Andini-directed her students to choose one of the notices collected from the school library or from her own collections.She then asked the students to look at it and answer the following questions: 1) What does the notice mean?
(2) What should we do?(3) Where can you find the notice?Then, Andini wrote "Think-Pair-Share" on the white board and paired up her students.One female student worked with her peer, a boy.Her chosen notice read: No Admittance Employees Only.She gave her initial answers for the three questions to the boy.Realizing that his peer had difficulties, the boy helped her by explaining the meaning of the word "employees."With this help, the girl then could report her revised answers to the whole class without using any Indonesian words (Field Notes, 20150331).
Typically in the CL structures observed in these classrooms, the peer interaction that usually followed a lower level of individual accountability was also an arena in which the student participants practiced using spoken English.For example, in the Think-Pair-Share used in the middle school classrooms as described above (Field Notes, 20150331, 20150404), peer interaction took place after the student participants performed their individual accountability to their partner, i.e., telling their answers to the three questions (see Appendix 1 for the procedures for CL structures used by the teacher participants).They gave feedback to each other, which was mostly on vocabulary, so they could present their answers in the target language with vocabulary that suited the notice in their performance of individual accountability to the whole class (Field Notes, 20150331).
In the use of Whispering Game, a similar interaction happened after the student participants in the middle school classroom delivered the message their teacher gave to a fellow group member.This interaction was needed to make sure that the next courier understood the message and could deliver it precisely to the next student in the group.Most of the student participants tried to ensure that their partner mastered all of the words in the message, as evidenced by them repeating it again and again.This demonstrated the students' frequent use of English.Additionally, the students' practices of delivering the message in front of their peers-refining their performance before the real performance (the next level of individual accountability)-indicates the occurrences of comprehensible output in the EFL classrooms.
In the high school classroom, peer interaction was observable when the student participants were learning about news items through One Stray.After presenting their list of news-related words/the assigned aspect of news item (i.e.individual accountability in other groups), the student participants conversed with other groups' members about what they had just presented (Field Notes, 20150318, 20150401).This showcases the use of English in the high school classroom.
Even though the use of Javanese (the first language of the majority of the research participants) and Indonesian (the second language of the majority of the research participants) was heard during the student participants' interaction across sites, English words were used especially when they were giving each other feedback on vocabulary, which was also another identified role of individual accountability in CL in the studied EFL classrooms.In short, the use of the target language was promoted through the interactions described above, which helped the student participants to prepare for the next level of individual accountability performance.Such interaction might not promote negotiation for meaning, a notion postulated by Long (1996) that suggests that learners make "adjustments to linguistic form, conversational structure, message content or all three, until an acceptable level of understanding is achieved" (p.418).Nevertheless, the student participants' feedback giving and receiving on vocabulary during their interaction, which was in preparation for their next performance, was an attempt to achieve an acceptable level of understanding.Also, the student participants may not be aware that their activities in the CL setting, including when they were doing their performances of individual accountability, helped make comprehensible output and input available in their EFL classrooms.
With regard to learning objectives, in the case of the middle school student participants, through their individual accountability performances in CL, they practiced their speaking in English, which was the target language skill of all of the observed lessons.As for the high school student participants, their individual accountability performances in One Stray were for them to display their mastery of the knowledge of news items, which was one of the objectives of the observed lessons.

The Use of English in Conventional Group Work and CL
The use of conventional group work in the studied EFL classrooms provided fewer opportunities for the student participants to use the target language compared to the use of the CL structures.This was evident in one of the middle school classrooms when the student participants worked on a grammar exercise in groups of four or five.Each group was given a worksheet containing a fable and asked to do the following activities: underline the past verbs, circle the past continuous, and square the adverbs used in the fable.One group of the student participants was closely observed, specifically to see their interaction when completing the given task.
The observed group consisted of five students: two boys and three girls.Boy number one said, "Aku wae, sing kotak" (Javanese, meaning: I will do the squaring).Boy number two replied, "Aku sing garis" (Javanese, meaning: I will do the underlining).The worksheet was in front of two of the three girls.The other girl was sitting in front of them.She tried to identify the assigned grammar points as well but had difficulty doing so because she was reading the sheet from the opposite direction.The boys then took over the sheet and did the task together.The girls talked about the task in Indonesian.Next, each of them tried to do the labeling from where they sat.One of the boys asked everybody in the group, in Indonesian: "'Onto' itu apa?" (What is onto?).One of the girls replied, also in Indonesian, "Itu dari 'on to'" (It is from on to)."After all groups finished the task, Andini asked them to exchange their work with a neighboring group and she led them in checking each other's work (Field Notes, 20150406).
The above description of the use of conventional group work portrayed how the student participants in the middle school classroom used Indonesian and Javanese in their interaction with their group members while completing the given task.Moreover, in this interaction, the individual students were not preparing for any presentations or performances.Compared to the use of CL structures in their classroom, the following target language use-promoting activities were not available in the conventional group work described above: 1) students' performances of individual accountability, and 2) the use of English in these performances.In other words, each student was not assigned any task that required them to present or share to their peers, in the target language, about what they had learned.This was an indication that they may not have worked toward the intended outcome of improved communicative competence in English, specifically toward the development of their skills in speaking in English stated in the day's lesson plan (Lesson Plan, 20150406).More specifically, since performances or presentations in English were not required, comprehensible output and input may not be available when the student participants in the middle school classroom learned via conventional group work.
Even though the middle school students' preparation for individual accountability performances was carried out in interactions with only a little use of English, when they were performing their individual accountability (e.g., in Think-Pair-Share, Whispering Game), they used English without any Indonesian and/or Javanese words.In other words, the EFL learners in the middle school used the target language in their individual accountability performances in CL.Specifically, they used English, which suggests the production of comprehensible output and the availability of comprehensible input, to: 1) present their answers to the three questions on the notice to their peer (the Pair phase of Think-Pair-Share), 2) present their refined answers to the whole class (the Share phase of Think-Pair-Share, 3) deliver the given short message to another group member (Whispering Game), and 4) present the given short message to the whole class (Whispering Game) (Field Notes, 20150331, 20150401, 20150404).These uses of spoken English were possible because of the levels of individual accountability in the CL structures selected by the middle school teacher, which were not present in the use of the conventional group work described earlier.
One of the focal students from the middle school, Budi, explained how he used less English and more Indonesian when he was not working in CL groups such as Think-Pair-Share and Whispering Game: Pada saat kelompok biasa, saat presentasi di depan hanya perwakilan, tidak semua mendapat kesempatan untuk maju, tampil.Dan mungkin, saat kelompok biasa, mungkin karena jumlah anggota kelompok yang terlalu banyak, sehingga kami lebih nyaman dan memilih menggunakan bahasa ibu, bahasa Indonesia dan tidak menggunakan bahasa Inggris.
When working in regular group, only the representative of the group was presenting, not all got the opportunity to come in front, perform.And maybe, when working in regular group, maybe because of the number of group members is too big, we feel more comfortable and choose to use our mother language, Indonesian and not using English.(Second Interview, 20150404) As Budi's explanation suggests, there was more use of English than of Indonesian in CL when compared to conventional group work because, in the former (CL), every group member was held accountable to represent the group and do the presentation ("When working in regular group, only the representative of the group was presenting, not all got the opportunity to come in front, perform").Budi was from the eighth grade classroom in which Think-Pair-Share and Whispering Game were used.As discussed earlier, in these two CL structures, each student was to perform in front of a partner and then to the whole class using English.Hence, in Budi's view, it was the individual accountability performances in CL, which were not required in conventional group work, that promoted the use of English.Budi assumed that in conventional group work "the number of group members is too big" and it usually made him and his peers feel more comfortable using their first language, Indonesian, rather than using English in their interaction.In short, through individual accountability performances in Think-Pair-Share and Whispering Game, Budi had more opportunities to use English.
With regard to how individual accountability in CL promoted the use of English, Budi's teacher, Andini, shared a similar view.Nevertheless, unlike Budi, she did not see that the number of students in conventional group work was a cause of the fewer uses of English, saying: Dalam CL, masing-masing individu punya peran dan tanggungjawab masing-masing walau dalam kegiatan yang sederhana seperti 'RoundRobin' dan 'Talking Chips'.Kalo dalam kelompok kerja konvensional, kemungkinan hanya siswa yang pandai yang berperan.
In CL, each student has a role to play and responsibility, even in a simple activity such as RoundRobin and Talking Chips.In conventional group work, there is a possibility that only the smart students take part.(Third Interview, 20150408) Andini highlighted that in CL each student had a role to play and/or took a responsibility, including in the CL structures she usually used in her classrooms, RoundRobin and Talking Chips (Kagan & Kagan, 2009), which she considered simple.She, however, did not use Talking Chips in any of the observed lessons.As set by Kagan and Kagan (2009), in RoundRobin, individual students have a responsibility to state responses or solutions to a question or problem that their teacher poses.For Talking Chips, individual students place one of the given talking chips in the center of the table as they contribute to the group discussion (Kagan & Kagan, 2009).In these two CL structures, there is only one layer of individual accountability, i.e., individual accountability in (home) groups.Even if there is only one layer of individual accountability in a CL activity, when it is used in a language class, students' responses are to be presented in the target language.Even though only one type of individual accountability was carried out by the middle school students when they were learning through Numbered Heads Together (out of the two required by this CL structure, see Appendix 1), all of the groups' representatives used English in answering Andini's comprehension questions on a fable they read that day (Field Notes, 20150431).Andini's account above also reflects her view that, since responsibility was not assigned to each group member in conventional group work, certain kids will likely dominate the talk.
The use of less English in conventional group work was observed in the high school classroom too, especially in the last three observed lessons (i.e.lessons three-five).The negative cases presented here were from the third and fifth lessons in which speaking was the target language skill.In the third lesson, the students worked in groups of four.Putri gave each student a worksheet containing four news items and assigned each group one news item as their focus.Putri stressed that her students' job was to practice with their group members reading or reporting the news item with good pronunciation, eye contact, and confidence.Only one group out of the four was seen taking turns reading the news.The other students were generally off-task, such as playing with their cellphones and talking about non-school related content in Javanese (Field Notes, 20150404).This was partly because each student was not given a responsibility to practice reading the news in front of their group members and to pay attention to their peers' practices.If such responsibility was given, the student participants would likely have used English at least twice: in their group and in front of the class.The student participants actually needed frequent practice using the target language as the day's target language skill was speaking, and they were to present a piece of news in front of the class.
In the fifth lesson-focused on the language skill of speaking (Lesson Plan, 20150409)-Putri used conventional group work to teach about expressions for making and accepting/refusing an invitation.The first task was for the students to perform a given dialogue of inviting and accepting/refusing an invitation with a partner.Putri's spoken instructions for this activity were: "Choose your own partner.And then I will give you a dialogue, actually different dialogues, and practice with your pair.You will perform the dialogue without text."Only a few pairs were seen practicing the dialogue.For example, five girls were sitting close to each other: 1) two were holding the dialogue sheet, 2) one was playing with her cellphone, 3) another one was playing with a balloon, and 4) the last one was laying her head on the desk.
Then, Putri asked all pairs to perform the dialogue in front of the class.While Putri asked her students to do the performance without any text, most of the student participants simply read the dialogue from the sheet (Field Notes, 20150409).Hence, since the high school student participants hardly practiced the dialogue with their partner, their activity of reading the dialogue in front of the class could be the only moment they used English.This happened because practicing their dialogue lines with their peer was not required; individual students were not given this responsibility and not held accountable.
Similar to how conventional group work was used in the middle school classrooms, when they were doing the given tasks through conventional group work, the majority of the student participants in the high school classroom were not held accountable for their own learning (such as mastering their dialogue lines) and the learning of their peers (such as paying attention to their partner saying their dialogue lines).These students' in-front-of-the-class performances (reading the news and performing the dialogue) were not preceded by practice in their group.This meant less use of spoken English that was actually needed in their lessons, especially because the focused language skill was speaking.
Although there was a missing step(s) in the use of the CL structures in the first and second lesson, the high school student participants used English when they were performing their individual accountability, such as presenting the list of news-related vocabulary and the assigned aspect of a news item (in Jigsaw and One Stray) (Field Notes, 20150318, 20150401).These students' individual accountability performance in CL was on two planes: in the other groups and to the whole class, which means more use of spoken English.Joko recalled the use of English in conventional group work and compared it with the use of the language in individual accountability performances in CL, saying: Dalam kelompok biasa menggunakan bahasa Inggris bisa dibilang jarang karena kelompok biasa menggunakan bahasa ibu mereka untuk membahas bahasa Inggris.Namun dengan adanya 'individual accountability' siswa diharuskan menggunakan bahasa Inggris untuk menyampaikan hasil diskusi mereka.
In regular group work, the use of English is rare because in such group, they used their first language to discuss English language.Nevertheless, with individual accountability, the students should use English to present the result of their discussion.(Second Interview, 20160616) Joko highlighted that through CL he and his peers used more English than when they were working in conventional groups ("with individual accountability, the students should use English to present the result of their discussion") and attributed it to the responsibility of individuals within CL groups for presenting the learning materials to the other groups.Natya shared a similar view: Di kelompok biasa kita lebih banyak mendiskusikannya menggunakan bahasa Indonesia atau bahasa Jawa bukan bahasa Inggris, sedangkan dengan metode CL tadi kita lebih banyak menggunakan bahasa Inggris karena kita langsung berinteraksi dengan kelompok lain.
In regular group work, we discuss in Indonesian or Javanese language more, not in English while with CL method we use English more because we interact directly with the other groups.(Second Interview, 20150529) Natya underlined that, as it required peer interaction, CL promoted the use of English ("while with CL method we use English more because we interact directly with the other groups").Both Joko and Natya's account showed that, when learning through CL, the student participants in the high school were aware of their responsibility for presenting what they learned to the other class members and of the requirement for using English when doing the presentations.In other words, it was individual accountability in CL that promoted the use of English in their classroom.This was echoed by their teacher, Putri, when she was asked about the use of English when her students were learning through CL.She said: Anak-anak jadi aktif; guru hanya sebagai motivator saja.
The kids became active; my job was just to motivate them.(Third Interview, 20150424) Putri's answer suggested that because of individual accountability in CL her students became "active" both in their interaction with the learning materials and in using the target language.According to Putri, her job was then to give her students encouragement.
Through their individual accountability performances in CL, the EFL learners involved in the study had more opportunities to use English than when they were learning through conventional group work.The data analysis revealed that the student participants tended to use their first language more in their conventional groups than in their CL groups because in the latter they were required to communicate (i.e., through peer interaction and individual accountability performances) with other group members and to the whole class to share what they learned.The student participants were aware of the requirement for the use of English when communicating the learning materials to their peers.Therefore, since there were levels of individual accountability in CL, the student participants had more opportunities to use the target language.Such opportunities might have contributed to their English learning, especially in speaking, as one of the four language skills learned.
The production of comprehensible input, the availability of comprehensible output, and the process of negotiation for meaning in the studied EFL classrooms could be attributed to the activities of individual accountability in CL, including peer interaction and individual students' performances or presentations.When EFL learners are producing the target language through their performances of individual accountability, they may: 1) notice that there are words or phrases that they do not know how to say to convey accurately the message they wish to convey, 2) test their hypothesis of how to say their intention, and 3) reflect on the language used by themselves or their peers (Swain, 1985).
Andini's account on the use of Think-Pair-Share in her classes best reflected the above three functions of output, specifically how her eighth graders' individual accountability in pairs helped them prepare for their individual accountability to the whole class (Field Notes, 20150331, 20150404).Andini stressed that when her students were producing spoken English before their peers, they noticed that they had difficulty saying what they wanted to say ("If a student's partner has not understood what he/she said, he/she will try to make it clearer…").In coping with this difficulty, as also demonstrated by the participant observation data (Field Notes, 20150331, 20150404), Andini highlighted that her students used Indonesian and/or Javanese in their negotiation for meaning with their peers ("…using a little bit of Indonesian language, and a little bit of Javanese language").She went on to explain that through performing their individual accountability in front of their partner, her students also tested their hypothesis of how to say what they wanted to say and reflected on the language they produced, such as thinking that if their partner understood what they presented, the whole class would understand it too ("Oh, my partner understood what I said.I explained him/her the way I did and he/she understood.This is the provision for performing in front of the whole class").
These processes, along with the process of gaining comprehensible input and producing comprehensible output through negotiation for meaning (such as receiving and giving vocabulary help) and paying attention to their peers' individual accountability performances (such as focusing on their pronunciation), contributed to the student participants' production of spoken English.Looking at this finding through a CHAT framework (recall Figure 1), it was clear that the preset procedure (i.e., steps) of the CL structures, as one of the rules applied in the activity systems, contributed to the students having more opportunities to use the target language.Hence, more than two components in the activity systems (e.g., subjects, object/outcome, and rules) accounted for this particular role of individual accountability in CL to emerge.

CONCLUSION
The present study demonstrates how individual accountability in CL, as an object-directed activity (i.e., activities of individual accountability help the learners achieve their learning objectives), needs support from its social environment in order to play its role in EFL learning.The EFL learners had opportunities to use the target language more, as opposed to conventional group work, because of the availability of the following aspects.First, the availability of levels of individual accountability and peer interaction-activities of individual accountability-set by the procedure of the selected CL structures (the rules component).The four levels of individual accountability in CL (in pairs, groups, other groups, and to the whole class) allowed EFL learners to have more opportunities to communicate what they learned to their peers, thus they produced the target language, especially in a spoken mode.During peer interaction, which usually took place between two performances of individual accountability, learners provided vocabulary feedback to each other, which also means production of the target language.
Second, the availability of the community of EFL learners (EFL classroom) in which the learners performed their individual accountability in English, which makes it possible for them to have an audience for their performances of individual accountability (the community component).In this community, which comprises performers of individual accountability and their audience, comprehensible input (for the audience) and comprehensible output (from the performers) are available.The two elements-comprehensible input and output-are essential for learners' language acquisition and development.Third, the availability of task sharing among individual students in CL groups (the division of labor component), which is also set by the procedure of selected CL structures.This task sharing allows students to be responsible for presenting what they learned (production of the target language) and paying attention to their peers' presentations.
The findings of the study also shed light on how to arrange peer interaction (the when, what, and how) in ways that promote language acquisition and learning.In their classrooms, the EFL learners involved in this study interacted with their peers after they performed their individual accountability (such as in Think-Pair-Share in the middle school classroom and One Stray in the high school classroom)-the when.With their peers, they talked about the task at hand, which was about the assigned learning materials that should be presented by each of them-the what.They took turns giving feedback on each other's performance of individual accountability-the how.This feedback-giving and feedback-receiving activity corresponds with Webb's (1982) variables of student interaction and learning in small groups that she identified as positively related to achievement: giving help and receiving help.In short, the findings of the study have illustrated that, in addition to the levels of individual accountability, it is the pattern of peer interaction in CL that contributed to the EFL learners having more opportunities to use the target language (particularly in a spoken mode).Opportunities for negotiation for meaning were also available for the EFL learners due to this peer interaction.
This study generates a depiction of how the relation between the subjects and other components of the activity system (recall Figure 1) materialized the roles of individual accountability in CL-such as the role of using the target language, explored in this article-in ways that enhanced the EFL learning in the secondary school classrooms.However, as the previous section indicated, teachers' understanding of CL, which is part of the rules component, may create systemic tensions in an activity system.Therefore, an effective implementation of CL (i.e., one that enhances learning) through the enactment of individual accountability requires support from its social environment, especially from the teachers and their understanding of CL.
This study indicates that in order to have CL implementation that goes in the direction of attaining the lesson objectives, it is important for teachers to follow the procedures of selected CL structures.Accordingly, we recommend teachers, particularly those new to CL, to first use CL structures or instructional strategies developed by CL experts exactly as described.Doing so will allow these teachers to recognize activities involved in individual accountability in CL and understand how these activities can benefit their students.With that being said, we also recommend that teacher education programs, in the teaching of CL, highlight the importance of individual accountability.While our work has contributed some initial understandings to the importance of one CL principle, further studies are needed to investigate the contribution of other CL principles in enhancing EFL learning.Such investigations could illuminate the extent to which inclusion and/or absence of other principles impacts the effectiveness of CL in EFL contexts.In addition, studies to explore teachers' understanding of the meanings of all of the CL principles could aid in teacher preparation for CL implementation, the development of other CL structures, and the establishment of criteria for assessing effective CL implementation.Continued study of CL's use in EFL instruction will be crucial to building teachers' knowledge, skills, and efficacy of CL and, in the short run, improving Indonesian learners' communicative competence.