An overview of Indonesian loanwords from French 156 AN OVERVIEW OF INDONESIAN LOANWORDS FROM FRENCH Tri Indri Hardini

When two languages come into contact, they exert a reciprocal influence, often unbalanced. A phenomenon that often occurs in case of language contact is the absorption or borrowing of lexical elements, which will enrich the vocabulary of the receiving language. In this article, we deal with words adopted from French in Indonesian and vice-versa. This research shows that most of the words of French origin in Indonesian/Malay language were borrowed through Dutch. Historical background explains why there are no direct loanwords from French language in Indonesian. Nowadays, a second batch of words originating from Old French finds their way into Indonesian through English. On the other hand, very few words from Malay-Indonesian origin were borrowed in French, and their route was not straight either: they were conveyed through Portuguese or Dutch. Phonological adaptation and shift of meaning may have happen when the words were loaned from French to Dutch language or later, when adapted from Dutch into Indonesian language. The data analysed in this article may help teachers of French as a Foreign Language in Indonesia, as well as teachers of Indonesian as a Foreign Language in French-speaking countries, to predict which words will be immediately recognized by their students, and when they should pay extra-attention to faux-amis (cognates whose

Our lexical references in Dutch owe a lot to Steinhauer & Moeimam's dictionary (2005).Jones (2008) published a glossary of loanwords in Indonesian and Malay, to date the most exhaustive reference on this topic.We also explored Indonesian glossaries on law and civil engineering.Browsing through these various sources, we could confirm that most, but not all the loanwords we had gathered were already mentioned in the KBBI, a reference dictionary by Alwi et al. (2001); to put it another way, we came across specialized terms that were absent from the KBBI dictionary, belonging for instance to law or civil engineering terminologies.
However, the aim of this article is not to set up an exhaustive list of loanwords from French in contemporary Indonesian, but to explain how and when these borrowings happened.Therefore, to avoid a long, boring list of entries, in the following sections we analyse selected words only, considered as representative examples, while additional data may be browse through in the annexe of this article.Finally, we will discuss some pedagogical implications of the similarity between loanwords and their etymons, either for Indonesian students of French and for French-speaking students learning Indonesian.

Sociolinguistic features of lexicon borrowing in Indonesian
Before dealing with the question of loanwords from French, let us examine to which extent Indonesian is open to lexicon borrowing.Indonesian (bahasa Indonesia), or Malay as it was called before the independence, has an Austronesian substrate.Malay-Indonesian borrowed words from Indian languages (most of them originating from Sanskrit), various Southeast China languages, Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Dutch, and English.These borrowings have been progressively assimilated into Malay-Indonesian since approximately 1300 years ago, and each "layer" of loanwords corresponds to a historical period, although there were some overlaps.Many Indonesian speakers believe that almost all their national language vocabulary has been borrowed from foreign sources, and sometimes they seem to regret this situation, as if it were offending for their sense of national pride.However, this is not true.Austronesian lexical substrate is still predominant in Indonesian (none of the foreign influences overstepped it), Malay-Indonesian syntax has not been modified by language contacts, and moreover there is nothing exceptional in extensive vocabulary borrowing into a living language.English borrowed a great number of French words in the 11 th -12 th centuries; French 4 absorbed dozens of Italian words in the 16 th century and today borrows many English words.Indonesian is not different, the number of its borrowed lexicon is not especially huge, compared to other living languages.More surprising is the geographical diversity of the borrowing sources: from Asia, Middle-East and Europe.
Foreign languages spoken outside Indonesia are not the sole source of loanwords into Indonesian.The Indonesian government, through Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa (The Agency of Language Development and Guidance, under the Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia), commonly called Badan Bahasa, may propose a borrowing from a regional language of Indonesia into Indonesian, or a neologism (creating a new word) to refer to an emerging concept.After all, many governments do not own any linguistic administration, for instance the United States of America, and there nobody cares if new words are borrowed from foreign languages and do not resemble to an Anglo-Saxon word.However, in Indonesia, like in many other countries, the national language plays a central role in national identity and cohesion, see Steinhauer (1994).Identity (either national, ethnical, regional, or smaller communities) is always defined by a series of features that must clearly differ from other people's identity features.These features include national symbols (flag, anthem…), cultural artefacts and tradition (food, clothes, arts…) and immaterial heritage (festivals, local wisdom, oral literature…) including language.Without sharing these kind of features, no people could consider themselves as a community, and no community could feel proud of itself.
Indonesian language, bahasa Indonesia, may be the most tangible feature that bounds together the Indonesian people and nation.The loyalty to the national language is obvious because people use Indonesian for various purposes in inter-ethnic communication, instead of a regional language which would exclude one of the addressees.Nobody would use a foreign language in this case, although within urban upper class English may be heavily mixed with Indonesian, a switch-code strategy aimed at showing one's social rank.No effort is needed to keep away the influence of foreign languages, as opposed to Malaysia where English is in competition with Malaysian during interactions between distinct ethnics.In Indonesia, even if the speakers share the same regional language 5 or master English language, they tend to choose bahasa Indonesia, especially outside home.This is very similar to the mind-set of a French citizen who is proud to speak French, and reluctant to use English with a foreigner, even if he/she would be able to 6 .This is why the Badan Bahasa (Agency of Language Development and Guidance), reflecting government's view, is reluctant with lexicon borrowings from foreign languages, and prefers "domestic" borrowings, within the huge regional languages stock of Indonesia (for instance from Javanese to Indonesian).Alternatively, the Badan Bahasa may promote the revival of an old 'archaic' Malay word, almost forgotten, with a revamped meaning.However, Indonesian speaker's attitude toward foreign languages as a source of additional lexicon is in contrast to their attitude towards cognates from various regional languages, which also contribute to the Indonesian lexicon.For example, the lexical elements borrowed from Javanese are not felt as originating from a foreign language although both of the languages (Javanese and Malay-Indonesian) are clearly classified apart.From the point of view of Indonesian (non-linguist) speakers, words of Sanskrit origin are completely melted with Austronesian basic lexicon of Malay-Indonesian, although they retain some non-Austronesian phonological features, especially consonant pairs, for instance swasta "private" (CCVCCV), while Austronesian root words "prefer" consonant-vowel alternation, for example kenapa "why" (CVCVCV).Phonological adaptation 7 is always possible, even for very exotic phonological structures (from Dutch, Russian, Chinese, etc. in Indonesian), for instance English software [sɒftwɛː] > Indonesian [sɔfwɛr]; we will comment on this topic when dealing with borrowings from Dutch.Besides, semantic shifting may also occur: the signifié (meaning) of a loanword may slightly differ from the original signifié, or even shift to an entirely new meaning.We will give examples of semantic shifting below, in the section "Semantic features of loanwords into Indonesian".
An alternative to borrowing is neologism, using existing roots and affixes in order to create a new word from scratch, for instance reksadana "mutual fund" < reksa "control, watch over" + dana "fund 8 ".However, following an implicit democratic process, only the speakers (the Indonesian speaking community) will adopt or reject a neologism.Piranti lunak, the literal translation of software proposed by the Badan Bahasa was not adopted in effect by the public, while unduh (a borrowing from Javanese) is overtaking on its equivalent English borrowing to download, see Grangé (2015).Many other examples and discussions can be found in Samuel (2005).
Like neologisms, the assimilation of a loanword greatly depends on the openness of the receiving speaking community.This openness is difficult to define, as it involves history, international relations, collective opinion and clichés about foreigners (do we prefer adopting words from a particular language and avoid borrowing from another?), sociology and governance.Let us keep in mind that language is an essential component of collective identity, as a community (or a nation, which is a large, politically bound, community).The most open is a speaking community, the easiest is the adoption of new words.Therefore, considering the diversity of borrowing sources in Indonesian, we can argue that Indonesians have been and are still an open speaking community.Open but proud: none of the colonial languages, especially Portuguese and Dutch, have replaced Malay-Indonesian.Indonesian speakers borrowed what they wanted, adapted what they needed, from the foreigners' languages.The reason why there are many Portuguese, Dutch, English loanwords.Another highly represented European language among Indonesian borrowed vocabulary is French.Why do we find so many words of French origin, do they result from language contact in the past?
A short history of relations between Indonesia and France According to Dorléans (2001Dorléans ( , 2006)), contacts between Indonesia and France started around 1650, but remained very tiny; only a few French navigators and merchants trying to buy spices roamed through the archipelago, mostly in Sumatra.The French never established a permanent trading post in the Nusantara archipelago (today's Indonesia and Malaysia).However, the colonization history of Indonesia by the Dutch 9 includes a brief direct link between Indonesia and France.Because of the French Revolution wars in 1795, the French Republic, then the Napoleon Empire occupied the Kingdom of Netherlands.Herman Willem Daendels was sent by Napoleon as General Governor of the Netherlands Indies during the French rule over Netherlands.Daendels had been a Dutch officer in the French Republic army, then a supporter of Napoleon.He is recalled today in Indonesia as a merciless general, initiator of heavy taxes in nature over Javanese peasants, very far from the ideals of the French Revolution.During the short French rule over Dutch Indies (1808)(1809)(1810)(1811), news bulletin in French circulated in Batavia.However, there was no significant language contact between French 10 and Malay speakers during this brief period, too short to explain the amount of French loanwords in Indonesian today.At the end of the 19 th century, and until the first world war, some French citizens lived and worked in Batavia, mainly in the domain of gastronomy and fashion.French young men were also recruited as soldiers in the Dutch colonial army, besides other European adventurers.However, they were not integrated to the Indonesian people, and had virtually no influence on local languages.
Therefore, loanwords from French into Indonesian must have been conveyed through a third, intermediate European language: a few words through Portuguese, dozens of words through Dutch during the colonial period, and nowadays through English.When did these three European languages borrow significant number of French words?The last was the first.English is full of French lexicon adopted around the 11 th century, following the conquest of England by Guillaume II of Normandy.Portuguese borrowed some French words a long time ago as well, around the 12 th century, far before the Portuguese sailors began venturing through the Indonesian archipelago.Later, many French words were adopted in Dutch, especially between the 17 th and the beginning of the 19 th century 11 .We have seen that Napoleon's rule entailed many interactions between French and Dutch, not always as friendly as they are today.The Civil Code, which is still the base of law in France since Napoleon, was adopted in Netherlands, then partially implemented in Netherlands Indies, and still provides the general legal frame in Republic of Indonesia today.
On the other hand, influence from Malay-Indonesian language over French language is tiny, bound to loanwords that refer to fauna, flora and cultural artefacts.In 1889, during the Exposition Universelle (International Fair) in Paris, a so-called village javanais (Javanese village) entertained visitors with music, dance and food.French composer Debussy was deeply charmed and influenced by the gamelan he had heard there.Painter Douanier Rousseau was probably influenced by Raden Saleh, who lived in Paris for many years at the end of the 19 th century.Some books relating trips made in Java by French travellers, and coming up with a bunch of exotic clichés, for instance Beauvoir (1868), met some success among French readers.Nevertheless, this overall influence is negligible, and again, it is obvious that the Malay-Indonesian loanwords adopted in French were intermediated by another language: Dutch of course, but also, at an earlier stage, Portuguese, as will be shown below.
To sum up this historical overview, an indirect cultural connection between Indonesia and France existed, and its traces can be found in lexical data.In other terms, there are no examples of direct vocabulary borrowing from French into Indonesian (except one word, maybe).All were adopted via Portuguese, Dutch, and very recently through English.Indonesian language is also a donor for European languages, and the small amount of Malay-Indonesian loanwords in French today all came through Portuguese and Dutch.

French loanwords through Portuguese in Indonesian
Portuguese were the first Europeans to wander in Nusantara archipelago in the years 1540, setting trading posts and small military forts in the Spices Islands (Moluccas) then Flores, Solor and Timor.A brief account of the influence of Portuguese over Malay can be found in Sneddon (2003, pp. 79-82) "; queijo > keju "cheese"; carreta > kereta "cart, carriage"; boneca > boneka "doll-puppet"; janela > jendela "window"; passear > pesiar "to take a walk"; domingo > minggu "Sunday".A longer list is annexed to this article.
French and Portuguese are both Romance languages, therefore when two words resemble, this similarity obviously comes from their Latin etymon.However, some borrowings have been documented from French to Portuguese and reciprocally.A few examples are quoted by Walter (1994, p. 208).Our following etymological notes about Portuguese have been adapted from the online database Infopedia (2003Infopedia ( -2016)), and for French from TLFi (2016).According to Piel (1989, p. 5), most of the borrowings from French to Portuguese happened during the 12 th century, through political, cultural and literary contacts.However, very few of these words made their way into Malay-Indonesian.The following words can reasonably be regarded as loanwords originating from French, conveyed into Malay-Indonesian through Portuguese around the 16 th century.

French loanwords through Dutch in Indonesian
In Indonesian, most of the loanwords from French were imported via Dutch.To put it another way, Dutch language borrowed a fair number of words from French, then Malay-Indonesian borrowed many words from Dutch.Between the two consecutive borrowing processes, the time gap may amount to centuries.This indirect borrowing process, where Dutch acts as receiver language (from French) and donor language (to Indonesian) can be represented as follows: French  Dutch  Malay-Indonesian These particular loanwords represent a significant proportion of the overall loanwords from Dutch in Indonesian. Maier (2005)  The subset of loanwords that can be tracked down to French emerged on a random basis in Indonesian.The Malay-Indonesian speakers had no preferences or dislikes for Dutch words that "sounded" more Romance than Germanic.Nevertheless, it is worth noting that some lexical fields are over-represented: law, military hierarchy or civil engineering vocabulary.Almost all the military grades are transparent between French and Indonesian today.This is probably due to language contact between French and Dutch during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, at the beginning of the 19 th century.Civil engineering lexicon probably followed this path, as will be exemplified below.On the other hand, automobile and mechanical vocabulary is authentically Dutch (sometimes English), for instance kopling "clutch" from Dutch koppeling, or menyetir (root word setir) "to drive" from Dutch stuur.Obviously, when cars began to roam European roads a century ago, Netherlands was free from French political influence, and language contact had become minimal, probably limited to luxury, mode, gastronomy and that kind of chic artefacts and services which still root the clichés about France.Therefore, only one Indonesian word related to automobile industry has its source in French: sopir "driver", from chauffeur, but in French it meant literally "the man who heats", i.e. loads coal into the locomotive boiler to heat the steam.And this reflects a previous period, mid-19 th century, when railway transportation appeared in Europe, and French was still a donor language for Dutch.
A significant number of loanwords from French were initially neologisms belonging to the field of science, technology and human sciences, shaped mostly during the Renaissance period (16 th century), by combining Latin and/or Old Greek roots and affixes.They are easily recognizable, for instance French nécrologie [nekʀoloʒi] "obituary column 19 " formed with Old Greek nekros "dead" and logos "word, discourse", hence nekrologi [nekrologi]   22  > discipline > disiplin "discipline, obeying to a higher authority or regulation" Again, many of these words are linked to legal topics reflect the French suffix -tion [sjɔ ] > Dutch -tie or -(s)sie [si] > Indonesian -si [si], for example konklusi "conclusion", eksepsi "exception", ekstradisi "extradition", yurisprudensi "jurisprudence".The French nominal suffix -oire [waʀ] is retained in Indonesian, although the /wa/ often split into to two distinct vowels, i.e. /oa/, for instance transitoire > transitoar "temporary".
Let us observe phonological implications of these borrowings.Malay-Indonesian and Dutch words own a priori contrasting phonological features; many phonemes are not shared by these two languages, and the word phonological structure seems conflicting, because Malay-Indonesian phonemes are preferably distributed on an alternation basis between consonants and vowels, hence CVCV… However, when Dutch is the donor language, some loanwords may show the "touch and feel" of original Indonesian words, as remarked by Chaer (2007, pp. 16-17) : aki "battery" or loket "ticket counter" may not be felt as loanwords by Indonesian speakers, while abonemen "subscription" or indekos "room to let" remain easily recognizable as borrowings 23 .The adaptation of foreign words into Indonesian follows different processes, depending on whether the word originates from a West-Malayo-Polynesian language or a more alien language, Indo-European for instance, but also depending on the particular phonological structure of each word.Any phonological obstacle can be overtaken through adaptation: any Dutch root word could be adopted into Indonesian, even though its phonological shape deeply contrasted with Indonesian, for instance stuur > setir "to drive".
Other phonological adaptations into Indonesian include the devoicing of French /v/, getting closer to a [f], for example variation [vaʀjasjɔ ] > variasi [farjasi] "variation".The /f/ is more occlusive in Indonesian and tends to /p/: faillite [fajit] > pailit [pajlit] "insolvability, bankruptcy".Inversely, by hypercorrection a /v/ may appear, while the etymon simply had a /p/, for instance punir > memvonis "punish".The consonant /z/ is also devoiced, tending to /s/: inclusif [ɛ klyzif] > inklusif [inklusif] "inclusive".Besides, a phonological adaptation in two steps is not uncommon, for instance French logement [lɔʒəmã] > Dutch logement [lɔʒəmɛn] > Indonesian losmen [lɔsmɛn] "accommodation".In addition, French words adopted in Dutch often retained their original spelling, even though these words had undergone phonological adaptation into Dutch.French bourgeois [buʀʒwa] spells alike in Dutch, although pronounced [burʒwis]; ultimately, when adopted in Malay-Indonesian, the spelling 24 was rearranged to reflect the actual pronunciation, in that case borjuis [bɔrʒwis] or [bɔrʒuwis].On the other hand, a subset of Indonesian legal terminology has retained the French spelling and more less its pronunciation 25 , probably because this terminology is highly specialized and in use only among lawyers and legal professionals.

French loanwords through English in Indonesian
The period of intense borrowing from French (especially its Normandy dialect) into English during the 11 th century is well documented, see for instance Walter (1994, pp. 379-386).It explains a great number of synonyms in English, for instance (the second is a French loanword) to begin / to commence; to end / to finish; to give up / to abandon; to help / to assist ; to look for / to search for; folk / people; wish / desire; clever / intelligent.Beside phonological adaptation, many of these loanwords have shifted, partially or totally, to a different meaning, for instance English actual "real, true" from French actuel "current, nowadays".Oppositely, in English a loanword may stick to the Old French definition, while the meaning of the corresponding word in Modern French has evolved its own way.This phenomenon is a welldocumented source of faux-amis (literally "false friends"): words phonologically similar, also called cognates, but whose meanings differ, and may entail misunderstanding in communication between native and non-native speakers.For example, money comes from Old French monoie, but nowadays monnaie in French only means "small change" or "currency".
Since the 20 th century, English acts as a global lingua franca and an "universal donor language".English words are now intensively borrowed in French, in Indonesian and many other languages.Words that originated from Old French centuries ago may even cross back the English Channel or the Atlantic Ocean, to be eventually re-introduced in French!They sometimes go unnoticed, because of their phonological shape; in addition, they may bear a different meaning.For instance, Old French chalenge "dispute, attack" had been adopted in English, then forgotten in French; but challenge was recently borrowed from English, and now means in French "sport competition" or "very difficult task".For these historical reasons, some words of French origin have been recently borrowed in Indonesian through English, which had absorbed it almost a thousand years ago.
In some cases, it is doubtful whether an Indonesian word originates from Dutch or, more recently, from English; Jones (2008) indicates for the entry biséksualitas « based on Dutch biseksualiteit or English bisexuality ».This remark applies to many recent scientific and philosophical terms shaped with Old Greek or Latin roots.For the following examples, the corresponding Dutch words are totally different, therefore an English origin for these loanwords in Indonesian is highly probable.The last example is worth commenting on, because the French word ressort [ʀəsɔʀ] "concerned, or under an authority" has been borrowed twice: firstly through Dutch, forming resor [resor] in Indonesian, meaning administrative authority, for instance Kepolisian resor kota "city district police".Secondly through English resort [rəˈzort] > resort [risort] "housing complex or condominium".More meaning shifts like this one will be exemplified below.

French
Any loanword in Indonesian fits into the regular Indonesian syntax.As any other root, a loanword can be affixed, with Agent Voice prefix meN-or Patient Voice di-, for instance mengakses (meN-akses) "to access", diakses "accessed", pengaksesan "the action of accessing".However, some loanwords resist to the sandi 26 rule: survei > mensurvei "to survey", while the strict sandi application would produce menyurvei.

Indonesian loanwords into French
Almost all the loanwords from Malay-Indonesian in French are related to fauna, flora and cultural artefacts.This is unsurprising, if we consider the climatic and geographic differences between Europe and Indonesia.These loanwords were conveyed through Portuguese and, more often, through Dutch.It is uncertain whether the last series of words were introduced in French through English; they probably originate from Peninsular Malaysia, which was under British colonial administration.The French word camphre "camphor" may have been borrowed before the colonial era, through Arab or Persian; its etymon is kapur barus.Finally, matahari "sun" is known in France with a totally different meaning: it was the stage name of a famous dancer at the beginning of the 20 th century 28 .

Semantic features of loanwords into Indonesian
Alike any other language, in Indonesian the usage of a foreign term provides simplicity and effectiveness in expressing new concepts, when the speakers feel their language lacks for an appropriate word.Crosslinguistically, borrowings can be classified into three types, after Matthews (1997) and Crystal (1997): Loan concept: a new concept or artefact appears, and its existing name in a foreign language is adopted into the receiving language, for instance televisi or wine in Indonesian, or bambou in French.
Loan translation or calque 29 : an foreign idiomatic expression is literally translated into the receiving language, for instance skyscraper translated pencakar langit in Indonesian, gratte-ciel in French, or white collars, Indonesian (pekerja) kerah putih, French cols blancs.
Loan blend: a hybrid phenomenon, where part of the expression or word compound is borrowed, while another part is "native", for instance studi banding "comparative survey", where studi < Dutch studie "study" and banding "compare" is Malay.Loanwords of different origins can be combined, for example apél bendéra "flag rising attendance monitoring" from apél "call (names)" < Dutch < French appel and bendéra < Portuguese bandeira "flag".'Loan translation' and 'loan blend' are not intensively used in Indonesian.We will focus on the 'loan concept' type of borrowing, which represents the huge majority of occurrences.Through borrowing, a signifiant (a compound of phonemes) is imported into the receiving language and may be phonologically adapted.This signifiant sticks to a signifié which refers to something (référent), either concrete or abstract in the speaker's environment or imagination.The most banal case of borrowing, labelled "loan concept", is triggered by the apparition of a new artefact or technology, leading to the borrowing of a foreign word, which already refers to this new concept.Some linguists, like Lehman & Martin-Berthet (2000) distinguish a subset of these "loan concept", called xenism 30 , which refer specifically to a concept definitively "alien" for practical reasons; for instance tundra, a kind of forest in very cold areas like Siberia, cannot refer to any landscape in Indonesia.An infinite number of words referring to artefacts, traditions or food linked to a particular community lead obviously to borrow its vernacular designation.Most of the loanwords from Indonesian into French displayed above are examples of xenism 31 .There is no reason why Indonesian gamelan (a percussion orchestra) should be translated differently in French, Chinese or Spanish; and there is no reason to modify the signifiant and signifié of the noun cognac [koɲak] (a French brandy), in Indonesian.
Of course not all the 'loan concepts' are xenisms.New technologies adopted globally in the 20 th century have invaded our daily life, altogether with their names, generally borrowed.Televisi "television" or mobil "car" are not bound to any particular country or culture, and nobody cares where the objects referred to by these words have been invented and where they are manufactured.'Loan concepts' borrowing type is not limited to nouns, it applies to verbs as well (in Information Technologies usage for instance) and to some adjectives or adverbs.On the other hand, grammatical words (morphemes) are almost not concerned, because they come under syntax, which is less likely influenced by language contact.
Besides the sudden apparition of new concepts, the need for expressing existing concepts in a more refined way also motivates borrowing; for instance, Indonesian recently adopted the word wine, probably because the noun anggur was semantically too wide, encompassing vine, grapes and wine.However, there may be no pragmatic reason in adopting a loanword when a concept can already be expressed by an existing word.In this case, borrowing has sociological grounds: a trendy, attractive foreign word supplants an existing word, for mysterious reasons.Language is also a social game, and some speakers may want to appear cool, smarter, or mark their social group by distinctive lexical features.Using foreign words (code shifting) while equivalent words are available in the local language is a way of manifesting one's original personality, education or leading social position.After all, exhibiting some kind of difference, superiority or attractiveness vis-à-vis other speakers is certainly a strong vector of evolution within every human language.
As a consequence of the borrowing process, shifts of meaning are frequent.The loanword signifié may be more or less divergent from the etymon signifié.It may become polysemic (polysemy increase), or on the contrary loose one of its possible meanings (polysemy reduction).Semantic narrowing or widening of the signifié also happen: the concept expressed by the loanword may be more limited than the etymon, or inversely.In some extreme cases, through borrowing the original signifié drifts to a completely different meaning.

French
Lastly, we came across two puzzling Indonesian words: dong and didong.The first word, dong, is very frequent, to recommend and advise an action, for instance makan dong! "eat please!"It resembles much to French donc [dɔ k], used in the same context and for the same purpose: mange donc "eat please!".Some Indonesians even pronounce and spell it donk.
The second expression is archaic, and was in use probably only in Betawi (Batavia/Jakarta dialect): orang didong "French man, French people".Its origin is amazing: French people were used to say dis donc! "How come!"; literally "say please!".Some French people lived in Batavia a century ago.Betawi people humorously coined this expression, because they heard it so often that it seemed perfect for designing French people.Dong is absent from Jones' loanword glossary (2008), while didong is correctly identified as a loanword from French.We believe that dong and didong are the unique loanwords that were borrowed directly from French into Indonesian, through a language contact limited in space (Batavia) and time (end of 19 th century -beginning of 20 th century).

Implications for language teaching
The data gathered in this article may help teachers of French as a Foreign Language in Indonesia, as well as teachers of Indonesian as a Foreign Language in French-speaking countries, to predict which words would be immediately recognized by their students, and when they should pay extraattention to faux-amis.A faux-ami is a word in a foreign / second language which resembles phonetically to a word in one's mother language 32 , but bears a (partially or totally) different meaning.Whenever these faux-amis occur during the learning process, they can lead to a false interpretation, because the learner will firstly assume that the cognate showing up in a foreign language means exactly the same as the corresponding term in his/her mother language.It can lead to misunderstandings when using the second language in real communication, as exampled below.
Firstly, the polysemy may have been imported along with the loanword: this is the case of the Indonesian word disiplin "obedience to an institution" or "knowledge domain", just as the polysemy displayed by the French etymon discipline (see above, note 22).More puzzling examples also occur: the Indonesian word partai displays a rather unusual case of homonymy.Depending on the context, it may be translated as "political party" or "part", especially when speaking about goods to be sold.Therefore, the phrase partai besar may mean either "big political party" or "in big parts (of merchandise)".This is rather confusing for a learner of Indonesian, and the teacher should be aware of that, although he/she does not need to explain that partai (political) is loanword from Dutch partij, while partai (parts of goods for sale) was borrowed long before that from Portuguese parte "part".
As already stated, there are plenty of loanwords from French in English, borrowed almost one thousand years ago.Quite often, original word and loanword meanings drifted apart.Unsurprisingly, faux-amis occurring between French and English are often mirrored in Indonesian, for instance sukses "success" while the French etymon (borrowed in English), succès now means "be famous, be popular", especially for artists.This can lead an Indonesian learner to tell "j'ai du succès à l'examen", which in fact does not mean he/she passed the exam, but that he/she was admired, praised publicly, and maybe applauded.Other frequent examples are listed below; these loanwords were conveyed into Indonesian through English.

French
Indonesian application "care, caution" aplikasi "application (request)" condition "requirement, specification" kondisi "state or quality of something" éditeur "publisher" editor "editor" issue "exit, way out" isu "issue, important topic" journal "daily newspaper" jurnal "journal" (for instance IJAL) location "rent (house, cars…)" lokasi "location place" diète "starvation diet" diet "diet" 33 route "road" rute "route, way taken to a destination" artiste "singer, musician, painter, dancer" artis "singer or actor" In some case, the faux-ami appears very finedrawn.For instance, French adjective domestique "inside home" seems equivalent to English domestic or Indonesian domestik.But it cannot be used for transportation; hence in English domestic flight or Indonesian penerbangan domestik cannot be translated as *vol domestique in French, but only vol intérieur, literally "interior flight" 34 .This is a contextual constraint on the usage of this adjective; contextual constraints apply to many words (be they cognates or not), and this represents the highest level of difficulties in mastering a foreign language.Using a word or a phrase perfectly understandable, but sounding unusual or weird in a particular context reveals the tiny difference between an excellent second language speaker and a native speaker.
Teachers of French as a Foreign Language (FLE) in Indonesia, just like teachers of Indonesian in French speaking countries, should be aware of these correspondences between French and Indonesian vocabulary.Obviously, their students will notice this likeness, and may tend to overuse cognates because this subset of the lexicon is obviously easy to remember.Nevertheless, this similarity and easy memorisation of these words may lead the learners to misuse the faux-amis.
It would be absurd to teach preferably cognates words to learners of French / of Indonesian; it may make them feel safe and familiar for a while with the foreign language they approach, but it may also lead them to believe that the language they begin to learn comprises a high percentage of cognates, which is wrong.However, there is no inconvenient in introducing step by step these cognates, but the teachers should systematically make students aware of the shifts of meaning: semantic narrowing or widening; polysemy increase or reduction; contextual constraints and faux-amis (shifts to a slightly different, or completely different meaning); so that the learners will be able to pick up the right word when they speak or write.Long definitions and comments are poorly effective.It is recommended to present a series of sentences where the cognates appear in various contexts.Finally, some students are required to propose a short explanation of the semantic features and constraints of the cognate.

CONCLUSION
Indonesian does not own an especially huge number of loanwords compared to other living languages.The most striking feature of Indonesian lexicon is that it has been enriched by several layers of loanwords at various periods and from diverse parts of the world: India, Southeast China, Middle-East, and finally Europe: Portuguese, Dutch, and more recently English.There have not been noticeable relations between Indonesia and France all along their Histories; therefore, no significant direct language contact happens.However, many Indonesian words can be tracked down to French lexicon, even as it was centuries ago.These borrowings were indirect: Portuguese and Dutch had adopted some French lexicon, then contributed, years or centuries later, to Indonesian lexicon.Therefore, some French words, totally assimilated in Portuguese or Dutch, were randomly introduced into Malay-Indonesian.Very few words were adopted into Indonesian through Portuguese, much more through Dutch.Quite recently, in the second half of the 20 th century, English became the main donor language for Indonesian, and inevitably conveyed very old French words that had been assimilated in English during the 11 th and 12 th centuries.
Besides the historical background of these borrowing, we have presented two kinds of modifications that go along with borrowing: phonological adaptation and semantic features.Phonological adaptation of foreign words into Malay-Indonesian include reinstating the alternation between consonants and vowels (CVCV…) and devoicing of /v/ and /z/.Semantic features of 'loan concept', the most frequent type of borrowing into Indonesian, show shifts of meaning, either the loss of one of the meanings (in case of polysemy) or even a complete shift to a different meaning.
Loanwords from French through Dutch are especially numerous in the lexical field of army, civil engineering and law, due to historical contacts between France and the Netherlands.Lexical field of fashion, perfumes, and gastronomy are well represented, and may have been conveyed through English as well.On the other hand, some Indonesian words have been adopted in French, mainly fauna and flora-related items, a type of 'loan concept' which is labelled xenism because it sticks to a foreign culture and to its vernacular designation.
Finally, the introduction of French vocabulary into Indonesian and vice-versa is totally due to the accidents of history, and was conveyed by other European languages.Therefore, speakers from both countries use these loanwords without any idea where they come from, which is fine.These French words in Indonesian and these Indonesian words in French may be viewed as colourful witnesses of global history and signs of language vitality.In this article, we used many times the verb "to borrow", but no need to return these loanwords: keep it as a kado < cadeau "gift".
Teachers of French as a Foreign Language (FLE) in Indonesia, and teachers of Indonesian in French speaking countries, should be aware of these correspondences between French and Indonesian vocabulary.However, it would be inefficient and boring to explain the etymology to the students.Instead, the cognate word should be presented in various contexts to point at its semantic features, otherwise the students will not be able to choose the right word.Further research could address systematically these issues, and eventually provide the teachers with a loanwords glossary highlighting and commenting on the faux-amis in Indonesian, from various source languages.

Annex: loanwords from French into Indonesian
These two wordlists are not exhaustive.More examples can be found in Jones (2008).French itself is not else than a daughter of Latin, which 2000 years ago replaced almost all the languages in Gaule (the ancient name of many small kingdoms, now France).Only twenty words of gaulois (languages of Gaule) remain in French today.

Loanwords from
5 Regional language would be more likely used at home, if all family members belong to the same linguistic community.
6 However, being proud of its identity does not mean that one dislikes foreign cultures, or different traditions.French language differentiates patriotisme (love of one's country), and nationalisme, which sounds quite negative, because it leads to regard other people, other cultures, as "wrong" or "inferior", and paves the way to injustice or even violence.Often, Indonesians are praised for their tolerance and openness, while they do love their country, hence a strong patriotisme.This may be because Indonesians are used to interact with people from various islands within their immense archipelago, with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. 7 Phonological features of a borrowed word may facilitate, or hamper, its adoption.For instance, Italian words fit themselves so easily into French that nowadays they go unnoticed. 8 The roots reksa and dana are both of Sanskrit origin, still a prestigious and preferred source for shaping neologisms in Indonesian.This tendency is comparable to the use of Old Greek and Latin in European languages, especially since the Renaissance (16 th century) in which concerns France, to create scientific, technical and philosophical terminology.9 The Dutch rule over the Indonesian archipelago is divided into two distinct stages: firstly a private company, the VOC (East-India United Company) during two centuries, until its bankruptcy in 1799.The VOC had progressively controlled Java, the Moluccas and various coastal areas elsewhere.Then the Kingdom of Netherlands established a colonial administration over the archipelago, from the end of Napoleonian wars (1816) until the conquest of Southeast Asia by the Japanese (1942).Altogether, this Dutch presence amounts to almost 350 years, entailing extensive language contact, although the colonial administrative staff usually used Malay or Javanese for their interactions with the pribumi (local population).
10 Very few French soldiers were assigned in Batavia during Daendels rule as General Governor.
11 The king of France Louis XIV had attacked the Netherlands in 1672, and occupied it partially until 1678.
12 The verb geler "to gel" was already in use in Old French during the 9th century, and the noun gelée appears in texts circa 10th century, according to TLFi (2016).From the meaning of frost (solidified water under 0° C.), it already referred to the soldified state of any liquid, especially food (for instance grease, pudding, agar-agar…) The latin etymon was gelata, but was abreged in French, hence gelée.Therefore, its adoption in Portuguese from French, and not directly from Latin is obvious, like some other cooking and food terms.
The last example above is obviously a loanword from French, because among Romance languages, only French modified the Latin words beginning by /ka/ > /ʃa/ or /ʃɛ/, for example Latin capra [kapra] > French chèvre [ʃɛvʀ] "goat".Following this rule, Latin cappellus became Old French chapel [ʃapɛl] "hat".Then the two last phonemes aligned on the plural pronunciation, chapeau [ʃapjo], and ultimately [ʃapo], but the borrowing into Portuguese had occurred previously, when it was still pronounced[ʃapjo].
argues that loanwords from Dutch amount to 20% of Indonesian lexicon; this figure may be exaggerated, and is not accounted for by quantitative justification 16 .Among the loanwords from Dutch in Indonesian, a significant subset is of French origin.Examples are displayed below; a more complete list is annexed to this article.
in Indonesian, with the same meaning.Many Indonesian words are suffixed with -si, corresponding to the Dutch suffix -tie or -(s)sie[si]and French -tion [sjɔ ], although not all of these words can be undoubtedly matched with a French etymon.Forming neologisms on Old Greek or Latin roots was common for many European scholars.Some examples are displayed below, picked up from the lexical field of civil engineering.
On the other hand, most French people do not own any precise image of Indonesia, not even a single cliché, although they may have watched TV documentaries on the fascinating natural landscapes of Indonesia.Mostly in Bandung, West Java, a city of approximately 2,6 million inhabitants. 3