Email this article 
Corrosion Inhibition of Mild Steel in Hydrochloric Acid Solution by Benzimidazole: Experimental and Theoretical Studies
Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of two newly synthesized benzimidazole derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for mild steel in 1 M HCl solution. The newly synthesized benzimidazole derivatives are 1-(Cyclohex-1-enyl)-3-((3-(4-nitrophenyl)isoxazol-5-yl)methyl)-1H-benzimidazol-2(3H)-one (as P1) and 1-(Cyclopent-1-en-1-yl)-benzimidazol-2(3H)-one (as P2). Potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were applied, complemented by density functional theory and Monte Carlo simulations. Results showed that both compounds act as mixed-type inhibitors, simultaneously reducing anodic and cathodic reactions. At an optimal concentration, they achieved inhibition efficiencies of more than 97%. Quantum chemical analysis revealed a change in energy gap and stronger adsorption energy, displayed greater reactivity and stability. SEM-EDX confirmed the formation of a protective layer through spontaneous adsorption, consistent with the Langmuir isotherm model. These findings highlight the potential of benzimidazole derivatives as efficient and sustainable corrosion inhibitors because they enhance material protection, improve thermodynamic stability, and reduce environmental and economic losses in industrial uses.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Syahputra, M.E., Salam, H., and Sasmita, A.H. (2021). Optimization of the oxy-acetyline gas cutting process on AISI 1045 steel material to produce minimum width kerf. ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering, 1(3), 207-212.
Saputra, R.B., Nuryoto, N., and Pramudita, M. (2025). Performance study of biocoating material with damar and silica extract from rice husk on mild steel in NaOH solution. ASEAN Journal for Science and Engineering in Materials, 4(1), 63-74.
Triawan, F., Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Abdullah, A.G., and Aziz, M. (2018). Plasma nitriding time on the hardness and crystal structure/phase of SUS403 and SCS6 martensitic stainless steels: An analytical study. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 13(8), 2369-2378.
Kadhim, A., Al-Amiery, A. A., Alazawi, R., Al-Ghezi, M. K. S., and Abass, R. H. (2021). Corrosion inhibitors. A review. International Journal of Corrosion and Scale Inhibition, 10(1), 54-67.
Sharma, S., and Kumar, A. (2021). Recent advances in metallic corrosion inhibition: A review. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 322, 114862.
Bammou, L., Mihit, M., Salghi, R., Bouyanzer, A., Al-Deyab, S. S., Bazzi, L., and Hammouti, B. (2011). Inhibition effect of natural Artemisia oils towards tinplate corrosion in HCL solution: chemical characterization and electrochemical study. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 6(5), 1454-1467.
Chaouiki, A., Hazmatulhaq, F., Han, D. I., Al-Moubaraki, A. H., Bakhouch, M., and Ko, Y. G. (2022). Predicting the interaction between organic layer and metal substrate through DFTB and electrochemical approach for excellent corrosion protection. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 114, 190-204.
Wang, L., Liang, J., Li, H., Cheng, L., and Cui, Z. (2021). Quantitative study of the corrosion evolution and stress corrosion cracking of high strength aluminum alloys in solution and thin electrolyte layer containing Cl. Corrosion Science, 178, 109076.
Alaoui Mrani, S., Ech-Chihbi, E., Arrousse, N., Rais, Z., El Hajjaji, F., El Abiad, C., and Jodeh, S. (2021). DFT and electrochemical investigations on the corrosion inhibition of mild steel by novel Schiff’s base derivatives in 1 M HCl solution. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 46(6), 5691-5707.
Xie, Y., Meng, X., Wang, F., Jiang, Y., Ma, X., Wan, L., and Huang, Y. (2021). Insight on corrosion behavior of friction stir welded AA2219/AA2195 joints in astronautical engineering. Corrosion Science, 192, 109800.
Arrousse, N., Salim, R., Abdellaoui, A., El Hajjaji, F., Hammouti, B., Mabrouk, E. H., and Taleb, M. (2021). Synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of xanthene derivative as highly effective, nontoxic corrosion inhibitor for mild steel immersed in 1 M HCl solution. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 120, 344-359.
Zarrouk, A., Messali, M., Zarrok, H., Salghi, R., Ali, A. A. S., Hammouti, B., and Bentiss, F. (2012). Synthesis, characterization and comparative study of new functionalized imidazolium-based ionic liquids derivatives towards corrosion of C38 steel in molar hydrochloric acid. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 7(8), 6998-7015.
Karci, H., Dündar, M., Nawaz, Z., Özdemir, İ., Gürbüz, N., Koc, A., and Hamdi, N. (2024). Sythesis, characterisation, anticancer and antimicrobial activity of Ag-N-heterocyclic carbene complexes containing benzimidazole derivatives. Inorganica Chimica Acta, 565, 121992.
Francesconi, V., Rizzo, M., Schenone, S., Carbone, A., and Tonelli, M. (2024). State-of-the-art review on the antiparasitic activity of benzimidazolebased derivatives: facing malaria, leishmaniasis, and trypanosomiasis. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 31(15), 1955-1982.
Bano, S., Nadeem, H., Zulfiqar, I., Shahzadi, T., Anwar, T., Bukhari, A., and Masaud, S. M. (2024). Synthesis and anti-inflammatory activity of benzimidazole derivatives; an in vitro, in vivo and in silico approach. Heliyon, 10(9), e30102
Wang, D., Wang, B., Pang, Y., Gou, Y., Zhu, H., and Chen, L. (2024). Donor–π–acceptor conjugated microporous polymers for photocatalytic organic conversion with photogenerated carrier separation ability by an embedded electric field along the molecular chain. Applied Catalysis A: General, 671, 119576.
Sghyar, R., Rhazi, Y., Aloui, M., Lahyaoui, M., Elmrayej, H., Elmsellem, H., and Sebbar, N. K. (2025). An investigation into the synthesis and characterization of novel tetrazole derivatives for application as mild steel corrosion inhibitors in a solution of hydrochloric acid. ACS Omega, 10(2), 2069-2080.
Salim, R., Adardour, M., Ettahiri, W., Ech-chihbi, E., Hammouti, B., Azam, M., AND Taleb, M. (2024). Computational and electrochemistry of effective triazolyl-benzimidazolone inhibitors in aggressive environment. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 39, e00862.
El Mrayej, H., En-nabety, G., Ettahiri, W., Jghaoui, M., Sabbahi, R., Hammouti, B., AND Taleb, M. (2025). Triazolopyrimidine derivatives: A comprehensive review of their synthesis, reactivity, biological properties, and molecular docking studies. Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology, 10(1), 41-74.
Wang, Q., Wang, R., Zhang, Q., Zhao, C., Zhou, X., Zheng, H., and Yan, Z. (2023). Application of biomass corrosion inhibitors in metal corrosion control: a review. Molecules, 28(6), 2832.
Pradhan, B. (2022). A study on effectiveness of inorganic and organic corrosion inhibitors on rebar corrosion in concrete: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 65, 1360-1366.
Salim, R., Nahlé, A., El-Hajjaji, F., Ech-chihbi, E., Benhiba, F., El Kalai, F., and Zarrouk, A. (2021). Experimental, density functional theory, and dynamic molecular studies of imidazopyridine derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for mild steel in hydrochloric acid. Surface Engineering and Applied Electrochemistry, 57(2), 233-254.
Hamidi, H., Shojaei, F., Pourfath, M., and Vaez-Zadeh, M. (2024). Adsorption behavior of some green corrosion inhibitors on Fe (110) surface: The critical role of d-π interactions in binding strength. Applied Surface Science, 655, 159425.
Han, Z., Ren, W., Yang, J., Tian, A., Du, Y., Liu, G., and Chen, Y. (2020). The corrosion behavior of ultra-fine grained CoNiFeCrMn high-entropy alloys. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 816, 152583.
Girão, A. V., Caputo, G., and Ferro, M. C. (2017). Application of scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). In Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, 75, 153-168.
Salim, R., Ech-chihbi, E., Fernine, Y., Koudad, M., Guo, L., Berdimurodov, E., and Taleb, M. (2024). Inhibition behavior of new ecological corrosion inhibitors for mild steel, copper and aluminum in acidic environment: Theoretical and experimental investigation. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 393, 123579.
Hu, R., Du, J., Zhang, Y., Ji, Q., Zhang, R., and Chen, J. (2022). Microstructure and corrosion properties of AlxCuFeNiCoCr (x= 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0) high entropy alloys with Al content. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 921, 165455.
El Ibrahimi, B., Jmiai, A., Bazzi, L.,and El Issami, S. (2020). Amino acids and their derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for metals and alloys. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 13(1), 740-771.
Hossain, N., Asaduzzaman Chowdhury, M., and Kchaou, M. (2021). An overview of green corrosion inhibitors for sustainable and environment friendly industrial development. Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, 35(7), 673-690.
Mousavi, S. M. A., and Pitchumani, R. (2021). A study of corrosion on electrodeposited superhydrophobic copper surfaces. Corrosion Science, 186, 109420.
Dai, C., Zhao, T., Du, C., Liu, Z., and Zhang, D. (2020). Effect of molybdenum content on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of FeCoCrNiMox high-entropy alloys. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 46, 64-73.
Zhang, C., Wu, L., Liu, H., Huang, G., Jiang, B., Atrens, A., and Pan, F. (2020). Microstructure and corrosion behavior of Mg-Sc binary alloys in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. Corrosion Science, 174, 108831.
Zaffora, A., Di Franco, F., and Santamaria, M. (2021). Corrosion of stainless steel in food and pharmaceutical industry. Current Opinion in Electrochemistry, 29, 100760.
Tan, B., Xiang, B., Zhang, S., Qiang, Y., Xu, L., Chen, S., and He, J. (2021). Papaya leaves extract as a novel eco-friendly corrosion inhibitor for Cu in H2SO4 medium. Journal of colloid and interface science, 582, 918-931.
Chafiq, M., Chaouiki, A., Damej, M., Lgaz, H., Salghi, R., Ali, I. H., and Chung, I. M. (2020). Bolaamphiphile-class surfactants as corrosion inhibitor model compounds against acid corrosion of mild steel. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 309, 113070.
Salim, R., Adardour, M., Ettahiri, W., Ech-chihbi, E., Hammouti, B., Azam, M., and Taleb, M. (2024). Computational and electrochemistry of effective triazolyl-benzimidazolone inhibitors in aggressive environment. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 39, e00862.
Rico-Cano, A. D., Mirza-Rosca, J. C., Ocak, B. C., and Goller, G. (2025). Corrosion Behavior and Microhardness of a New B4C Ceramic Doped with 3% Volume High-Entropy Alloy in an Aggressive Environment. Metals, 15(1), 79.
Radi, A., El Mahi, B., Aouniti, A., El Massoudi, M., Radi, S., Kaddouri, M., and Zarrouk, A. (2022). Mitigation effect of novel bipyrazole ligand and its copper complex on the corrosion behavior of steel in HCl: Combined experimental and computational studies. Chemical Physics Letters, 795, 139532.
Gayradjonovich, G. S., Mirzajonovich, Q. G., Tursunalievich, S. B., and Ogli, Х. A. M. (2021). Corrosion State Of Reinforced Concrete Structures. The American Journal of Engineering and Technology, 3(06), 88-91.
Ech-Chihbi, E., Adardour, M., Ettahiri, W., Salim, R., Ouakki, M., Galai, M., and Taleb, M. (2023). Surface interactions and improved corrosion resistance of mild steel by addition of new triazolyl-benzimidazolone derivatives in acidic environment. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 387, 122652.
Salim, R., Ech-Chihbi, E., Oudda, H., Aoufir, Y. E. L., El-Hajjaji, F., Elaatiaoui, A., and Taleb, M. (2016). The inhibition effect of imidazopyridine derivatives on C38 steel in hydrochloric acid solution. Der Pharma Chem, 8(3), 200.
Ouachikh, O., Bouyanzer, A., Bouklah, M., Desjobert, J. M., Costa, J., Hammouti, B., and Majidi, L. (2009). Application of essential oil of Artemisia herba alba as green corrosion inhibitor for steel in 0.5 M H2SO4. Surface Review and Letters, 16(01), 49-54.
Ettahiri, W., Salim, R., Adardour, M., Ech-Chihbi, E., Yunusa, I., Alanazi, M. M., and Taleb, M. (2023). Synthesis, characterization, antibacterial, antifungal and anticorrosion activities of 1, 2, 4-triazolo [1, 5-a] quinazolinone. Molecules, 28(14), 5340.
Zarrok, H., Oudda, H., El Midaoui, A., Zarrouk, A., Hammouti, B., Ebn Touhami, M., and Touzani, R. (2012). Some new bipyrazole derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for C38 steel in acidic medium. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 38(8), 2051-2063.
Elayyachy, M., Elkodadi, M., Aouniti, A., Ramdani, A., Hammouti, B., Malek, F., and Elidrissi, A. (2005). New bipyrazole derivatives as corrosion inhibitors for steel in hydrochloric acid solutions. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 93(2-3), 281-285.
Ijuo, G. A., Chahul, H. F., and Eneji, I. S. (2016). Journal of Advanced Electrochemistry. Journal of Advanced Electrochemistry, 2(3), 107-112.
Yüce, A. O., Telli, E., Mert, B. D., Kardaş, G., and Yazıcı, B. (2016). Experimental and quantum chemical studies on corrosion inhibition effect of 5, 5 diphenyl 2-thiohydantoin on mild steel in HCl solution. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 218, 384-392.
Guo, L., Luo, Y., Huang, Y., Yang, W., Zheng, X., Lin, Y., and Marzouki, R. (2022). Imidazolidiny urea as a potential corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in HCl medium: experimental and density-functional based tight-binding methods. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 17(7), 220748.
Hammouti, B., Aouniti, A., Taleb, M., Brighli, M., and Kertit, S. (1995). L-methionine methyl ester hydrochloride as a corrosion inhibitor of iron in acid chloride solution. Corrosion, 51(6), 411-416.
Chaubey, N., Qurashi, A., Chauhan, D. S., and Quraishi, M. A. (2021). Frontiers and advances in green and sustainable inhibitors for corrosion applications: A critical review. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 321, 114385.
Abdulmumini, H., and Ayuba, A. M. (2023). The adsorptive potential of potassium hydroxide treated water lily leaves for malachite green dye removal from aqueous solution: Isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics studies. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 11(2), 332–349.
Ahmadou, F., Abahdou, F.-Z., Slimani, R., and El Hajjaji, S. (2023). Kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic studies on the adsorption of methylene blue dye using Moringa oleifera pods and kernels. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 11(1), 265–281.
Allwar, A., Rahmawati, F., Indriyan, N., and Maulina, R. (2022). Removal of methyl orange from aqueous solution by biochar/Al2O3 nanocomposite. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 17, 55–64.
Anugrahwati, M., Sari, A. W., Munawwaroh, L. A., and Musawwa, M. M. (2022). Synthesis of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)-Fe3O4 for malachite green adsorption; Kinetics, isotherms, thermodynamics, and regeneration studies. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 17, 91–101.
Aziam, R., Boukarma, L., Aboussabek, A., Eddaoudi, E., and Chiban, M. (2023). Some parameters influencing the uptake of industrial acid blue 113 dye using chitin as natural adsorbent: Equilibrium and isotherm studies. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 11(3), 645–656.
Elsherif, K. M., El-Dali, A., Ewlad-Ahmed, A. M., Algadhi, H., and Alkarawi, S. (2022). Kinetics and isotherms studies of safranin adsorption onto two surfaces prepared from orange peels. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 10(4), 639–651.
Farobie, O., Santosa, N. F., Fatirasari, W., Nandiyanto, A. B. D., and Hartulistyoso, E. (2024). Harnessing macroalgae Sargassum plagiophyllum-derived heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. Bioresource Technology Reports, 25, 101768.
Hamza, A., Siyal, A. A. L. I., Shamsuddin, M. R., Hassan, S.-U., and Harito, C. (2022). Synthesis of porous geopolymers using burnout materials for the removal of anionic surfactant from aqueous solution. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 17(4), 2650–2657.
Kargule, B.B., Al-Asadi, M., Al-Anssari, S., Aljibori, H.S.S., Hamzah, H.T., Tastambek, K.T., Abdullah, T.A., and Abdullah, O.I. (2025). Sustainable removal of dyes from wastewater using eggshell-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticles: adsorption isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamic analysis supporting Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ASEAN Journal of Science and Engineering, 5(2), 369-394
Mahmmod, A. A., Khadom, A. A., Kadhum, A. A. H., and Al-Amiery, A. A. (2025). On the adsorption isotherms behavior of quinalozine as corrosion inhibitor for copper in nitric acid. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 13(2), 495–514.
Nandiyanto, A. B. D., Akbar, A. N. P., Suhandi, S. A., Luckyardi, S., and Aziz, M. (2024). Carbon particle size from galangal rhizomes as the sustainable adsorbent: Synthesis and mathematical calculation analysis in the adsorption isotherm characteristics. Journal of Studies in Science and Engineering, 4(2), 21–47.
Nandiyanto, A. B. D., Putri, A. E., Fiandini, M., Ragadhita, R., and Kurniawan, T. (2025). Biochar microparticles from pomegranate peel waste: Literature review and experiments in isotherm adsorption of ammonia. Applied Science and Engineering Progress, 18(1), 7506.
Nandiyanto, A. B. D., Putri, N. R., Firdaus, N. N., Gandidi, I. M., and Sukrawan, Y. (2025). Red onion peel biomass carbon microparticles for ammonia adsorption for supporting hydrogen storage and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with isotherm analysis. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 20(1), 181–194.
Nandiyanto, A. B. D., Putri, N. R., Salimah, N. N., Gandidi, I. M., Sukrawan, Y. (2025). Utilizing cassava peel-derived carbon biochar for ammonia adsorption to support hydrogen storage and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Effect of microparticle size and isothermal analysis. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 13(1), 424–439.
Nandiyanto, A. B., Firdaus, N. N., Anzety, N. D., Gandidi, I. M., and Sukrawan, Y. (2025). Carbon biochar microparticles from mango peel as a sustainable adsorbent for ammonia storage in supporting hydrogen energy systems and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 13(2), 531–548.
Nandiyanto, A. B., Nugraha, A. Y., Fawwaz, L. T., Gandidi, I. M., and Sukrawan, Y. (2025). Utilization of orange peel-derived biochar for ammonia adsorption: Isotherm analysis and hydrogen storage prospective for supporting Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 20(1), 85–98.
Nandiyanto, A. B., Yarfah Alhaqqa, J., Fiandini, M., Ragadhita, R., and Kurniawan, T. (2024). Silica microparticles with various sizes from bamboo leave waste for ammonia adsorption completed with bibliometric literature review, isotherm adsorption, and proposal adsorption mechanism to support Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 19, 59–76.
Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Girsang, G.C.S., and Rizkia, R.S. (2022). Isotherm adsorption characteristics of 63-um calcium carbonate particles prepared from eggshells waste. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 17(5), 3203-3210.
Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Hofifah, S.N., Anggraeni, S., and Kurniwan, T. (2022). Isotherm adsorption of 40-μm zeolite particles for treatment of dye wastewater. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 17(2), 1265-1275
Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Putri, S.R., Anggraeni, S., and Kurniwan, T. (2022). Isotherm adsorption of 3000-µM natural zeolite. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 17(4), 2447-2460.
Ragadhita, R., Amalliya, A., Nuryandi, S., Istadi, I., and Al-Obaidi, A. S. M. (2023). Sustainable carbon-based biosorbent particles from papaya seed waste: Preparation and adsorption isotherm. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 11(2), 395–410.
Ragadhita, R., and Nandiyanto, A.B.D. (2021). How to calculate adsorption isotherms of particles using two-parameter monolayer adsorption models and equations. Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology, 6(1), 205-234.
Ragadhita, R., and Nandiyanto, A.B.D. (2022). Curcumin adsorption on zinc imidazole framework-8 particles: Isotherm adsorption using Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich models. Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology, 17(2), 1078-1089.
Sadki, R., Dalimi, M., Labjar, N., Benabdallah, G. A., and El Hajjaji, S. (2023). Adsorptive removal of methylene blue, from aqueous solution using tea waste as a low-cost indigenous biosorbent: Mechanism of adsorption, equilibrium study, kinetics and isotherms. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 11(3), 594–612.
Sumaila, A., Aliyu, A. O. C., Abdullahi, A. S., and Usman, A. O. (2024). Adsorption isotherm, kinetic, and thermodynamic studies for the removal of Pb (II) and Zn (II) ions from mining wastewater using chitosan (CH) and chitosan–copper oxide nanocomposite (CMP). Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 12(2), 696–713.
Tcheka, C., Abia, D., Guibaissi, K. J., Kenfack, T. P., and Harouna, M. (2024). Adsorption of cationic dyes from aqueous solution on Gossypium hirsitum fiber extract coated pozzolan: Kinetics and isotherm studies. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 12(1), 1–20.
Tcheka, C., Abia, D., Iya-sou, D., and Tamgue, A. L. T. (2021). Removal of crystal violet dye from aqueous solutions using chemically activated carbons by H3PO4 activation from corn cobs and corn roots: Kinetic and equilibrium isotherm studies. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry, 9(2), 221–231.
Wulan, P., Kusumastuti, Y., & Prasetya, A. (2022). Adsorption of Fe (II) ion into chitosan/activated carbon composite: Isotherm and kinetics studies. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 17(3), 2218–2233.
Saoudi Hassani, E. M., Salim, R., Ech-chihbi, E., Zejli, H., Mehdaoui, I., Mahmoud, R., and Rais, Z. (2025). Investigation of water treatment residues as corrosion inhibitors in acidic environment. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 12164.
Boughoues, Y., Benamira, M., Messaadia, L., and Ribouh, N. (2020). Adsorption and corrosion inhibition performance of some environmental friendly organic inhibitors for mild steel in HCl solution via experimental and theoretical study. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 593, 124610.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17509/ijost.v11i2.89778
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2025 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Indonesian Journal of Science and Technology is published by UPI.
View My Stats